Methods of Research:
Experimental
Research:
The
experimental research designs involve manipulation of certain stimuli, or
treatments or environmental conditions to make an observation on how such
manipulations affect the behaviour of the subject. While doing such
manipulation the researcher must be aware of other factors which can affect the
outcome, which he/ she either remove or control. Thus, the four basic essential
characteristics of an experimental research design can be explained as:
1. Control: Those variables which are not of
interest to researcher and they can still affect the result also called the
extraneous variables are either removed or the arrangements are made to
minimize their effects. These arrangements can be either the random assignment
of subjects to the groups, matching the subjects on extraneous variables and at
times keeping groups homogenous or using some form of statistical technique.
2. Manipulation: In an experimental research,
manipulation refers to a deliberate introduction or operation of an independent
variable on the subjects in experimental group. This operated independent
variable is also called the treatment variable or an experimental variable.
3.
Observation: After introducing an independent variable, the researcher observes
its effect on dependent variable. This task is called observation in
experimental research.
4.
Replication: It refers to conducting sub experiments under a large experimental
design. The researcher can combine a number of experimental and control groups
in singe design.
Descriptive
Research:
Descriptive
research describes and interprets what is. It is concerned with conditions or
relationships that exist, the practices that prevail, the beliefs or attitudes
that are held, the processes that are going on; effects that are being felt or
trends that are developments. The approach is directed towards identifying
various characteristics of research problems and to create observations
conducive to further research. Descriptive research describes characteristics
of an existing phenomenon. Descriptive research provides a broad picture of a
phenomenon you might be interested in exploring. Current employment rates,
census of any country, number of working single parents are examples of descriptive
research. The purpose of descriptive studies is to observe, describe &
document aspects of a situation as it naturally occurs, & sometimes to
serve as a starting point for hypothesis generation or theory development.
Main
Features –
Ø Descriptive
designs are used to observe, document describe a phenomenon occurring in its
natural setting without any manipulation or control.
Ø The
descriptive studies are designed to gain more information about characteristics
within a particular field in the real world.
Ø Descriptive
studies provide an impression of a situation as it occurs in natural settings.
Ø Descriptive
studies do not involve the manipulation of variables & variables are
studies as they exist in the real world.
Ø Descriptive design may be used to develop
theories, identify problems with current practices, justify current practices,
make judgments, or determine other practices in similar situations.
Ø Descriptive
studies, bias is prevented through operational definitions of variables, large
sample size, random sampling techniques, valid & reliable research tools
and formal data collection methods.
Ø Descriptive
designs include identification of phenomenon of interest, identifying the
variables within the phenomenon, developing operational definitions of the
variables & describing the variables.
Historical
Research
Historical
research analyzes documents and artifacts and/or uses interviews with
eyewitnesses to gain insight into past events. The success of historical
research depends on the accuracy and completeness of the source material. The
researcher must establish the authenticity of the documents used, as well as
the validity of their contents. An educational researcher might want to
investigate the trends in kindergarten education in a particular school
district from its beginnings to the present. Also, one might investigate the
methods used to teach reading in the past or study school practices and
policies such as grade retention. Some of the data collected in historical
research might be quantitative, such as when an investigator compares a school
district’s reading achievement scores when one teaching method was used with
the scores obtained when another method was in vogue.
Historical research involves studying,
understanding and interpreting past events. The purpose of historical research
is to reach insights or conclusions about past persons or occurrences.
Historical research entails more than simply compiling and presenting factual
information; it also requires interpretation of the information. Typically,
histories focuses on particular individuals, social issues and links between the
old and the new. Some historical research is aimed at reinterpreting prior
historical works by revising existing understandings and replacing them with
new, often politically charged ones.
The
main emphasis in historical research is on interpretation of documents, diaries
and the like. Historical data are categorized into primary or secondary
sources. Primary sources include first-hand information, such as eyewitness
reposts and original documents. Secondary sources include second-hand
information, such as a description of an event by someone other than an
eyewitness, or a textbook author’s explanation of an event or theory. Primary
sources may be harder to find but are generally more accurate and preferred by
historical researchers. A major problem with much historical research is
excessive reliance on secondary sources.
Researches
cannot accept historical data at face value, since many diaries’ memoirs,
reposts and testimonies are written to enhance the writer’s position, stature,
or importance. Because of this possibility, historical data has to be examined
for its authenticity and truthfulness. Such examination is done through
criticism; by asking and researching to help determine truthfulness, bias,
omissions and consistency in data.
Qualitative
Research:
Qualitative
researchers seek to understand a phenomenon by focusing on the total picture
rather than breaking it down into variables. The goal is a holistic picture and
depth of understanding rather than a numeric analysis of data. Qualitative
research aims to explore, discover, understand or describe phenomena that have
already been identified but are not well understood.
Characteristics
of Qualitative Research:
Ø Qualitative
research makes use of naturalistic inquiry. It aims at studying real world
situations as they unfold naturally without any manipulation and predetermined
constraints on outcomes.
Ø It employs inductive or ‘bottom-up’ approach.
The researcher generates new hypotheses and grounded theory from data collected
during field work. It aims to discover important categories, dimensions, and
interrelationships. In the process of induction, the researcher begins by
exploring genuinely open questions rather than testing theoretically derived
(deductive) hypotheses. The data are used to develop concepts and theories that
help the researcher to understand the phenomenon.
Ø Most
of the common research objectives in qualitative research aim at description,
exploration, and discovery using ‘wide-angle’ and ‘deep-angle’ lens approach so
as to examine the breadth and depth of phenomenon and to learn more about it.
Ø The
behavior of the subjects under study is assumed to be fluid, dynamic,
situational, social, contextual and personal. The behavior is studied in the
natural environments not under the controlled conditions.
Ø Qualitative
research makes use of qualitative data which are gathered from natural
settings. The total emphasis is on understanding of the situation in all its
complexity by not proving something, not advocating, not advancing personal
opinions and views, but researcher includes his personal experiences and
emphatic insight as part of the relevant data while taking a “neutral non
judgmental stance toward whatever content may emerge”.
Ø Purposive sampling is the dominant strategy in
qualitative research. The researcher uses small samples. The researcher is the
primary data collection instrument, “researcher’s personal experiences and
insights are an important part of inquiry and critical to understanding the
phenomenon”. The data are in the form of words, images, and categories.
Ø Qualitative research emphasizes “unique case
orientation”. It assumes each case is special and unique. Cross-case analysis
follows from and depends on the quality of individual case studies.
Ø The
analysis of qualitative data requires organizing raw data into logical,
meaningful categories, and examining them in holistic fashion for
interpretation to others.
Quantitative
Research :
Quantitative research is a type of
educational research in which the researcher decides what to study; asks
specific, narrow questions; collects quantifiable data from participants;
analyzes these numbers using statistics; and conducts the inquiry in an unbiased,
objective manner. Quantitative research is an inquiry into an identified
problem, based on testing a theory, measured with numbers, and analyzed using
statistical techniques. The goal of quantitative methods is to determine
whether the predictive generalizations of a theory hold true.
Characteristics
of Quantitative Research:
Ø Quantitative
research uses deductive or ‘top-down’ approach. The researcher formulates and
uses hypotheses and theory with data.
Ø It
is based on logical-positive paradigm which utilizes experimental methods and
quantitative measures to test specific hypothetical generalizations with narrow
angle lens.
Ø Quantitative research uses scientific method
with ‘hard science’ trappings. The researchers treat their subjects of study as
having an existence independent of themselves and without any intrinsic
meaning. - Behavior of the subjects under study is assumed to be regular and
predictable.
Ø Most of the common research objectives in
quantitative approach aim at description, explanation and prediction of social
phenomenon. The emphasis is not on the deep understanding of the phenomenon or
content.
Ø Quantitative research attempts to study
behavior under controlled conditions. The nature of observation is objective,
i.e., different observers agree on what is observed.
Ø Closed
ended structured questionnaires, tests, attitudes scales, rating scales, etc.
are used to collect quantitative data based on precise measurement.
Ø The
dominant sampling strategy in quantitative research is probability sampling,
which depends on the selection of a random and representative sample from a
larger population. The purpose of probability sampling is subsequent
generalization of the research findings to the population from which the sample
was selected. Generally, large samples are used in quantitative survey studies.
Ø Quantitative research is deductive in that it
tests theories which have already been proposed. It aims at analysis of
representative and validated quantitative data, through the use of
sophisticated statistical methods and software packages.
Ø The
findings are based on identified statistical relationships and generalizable
findings. Using the principles of probability, quantitative research Make
predictions representative of a large population.
Ø The
form of final report is statistical with details about the use of various types
of statistics, e.g., correlations, comparison of means, percentages, etc. and
the, Statistical significance.
Finally, we can say Quantitative research
involves successive phases of hypothesis formulation, data collection, analysis
and interpretation. Using deductive approach, it seeks to establish facts, make
predictions, and test hypotheses that have already been stated.
